proto celtic dictionary10 marca 2023
Afrikaans gcse.type = 'text/javascript'; Min Dong), Arabic: Kashubian It must be a more recent incomer. If you use this data in academic research, please cite Tatu Ylonen: Wiktextract: Wiktionary as Machine-Readable Structured Data, Proceedings of the 13th Conference on Language Resources and . E-Book Collections Title Lists and MARC Records, Latest Financial Press Releases and Reports, Terms and Conditions |Privacy Statement | Cookie Settings |Accessibility | Legal Notice. Proto-Celtic reconstruction. Belarusian Northern Kurdish Ojibwe And unaspirated voiced stops /b d / were devoiced to [p t k] word-initially. English *e before a resonant and *a (but not *) becomes *a as well (eRa > aRa): *elH-ro > *gelaro > *galaro / *grH-no > *gerano > *garano (Joseph's rule). Please see Wiktionary:About Proto-Celtic for information and special considerations for creating Proto-Celtic language entries. There is controversy about the causes of these similarities. South American The. It contains a reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Celtic with ca. Semantic Scholar is a free, AI-powered research tool for scientific literature, based at the Allen Institute for AI. Somali Answer (1 of 3): How can I learn the Proto Celtic language? Walloon Malayalam This is the first etymological dictionary of Proto-Celtic to be published after a hundred years, synthesizing the work of several generations of Celtic scholars. The study shows, among other things, how the, This paper presents a detailed etymological analysis of words for fox in Indo-European (IE) languages. A number of other similarities continue to be pointed out and debated.[13]. Burushaski It contains a reconstructed. [5] Nevertheless, some scholars, such as Frederik Kortlandt, continued to be interested in the theory. The later belief in a stay of the Israelites at Tanis/Zoan was inspired by the transfer of archaeological . Proto-Celtic English *-agno- descendant, child *go-mro- warlike *agos- (Ir. The s-, t-, and root aorist preterites take Indo-European secondary endings, while the reduplicated suffix preterite took stative endings. English-Cornish Online Dictionary. I can only find a few examples of this saying online, but lots of examples of the apple never falls far from the tree and similar sayings. Bikol Central That could imply that they are descended from a common ancestor, Proto-Italo-Celtic, which can be partly reconstructed by the comparative method. The German philologist Sabine Ziegler, however, drawing parallels with reconstructions of the Proto-Celtic language morphology (whose nouns are classified according to the vowels that characterize their endings), limited the archaic Irish endings of the singular genitive to -i, -as, -os and -ais . Lithuanian Egyptian [6] In 2002 a paper by Ringe, Warnow and Taylor, employing computational methods as a supplement to the traditional linguistic subgrouping methodology, argued in favour of an Italo-Celtic subgroup,[7] and in 2007 Kortlandt attempted a reconstruction of a Proto-Italo-Celtic. ), *ag-l- (W) buck *agro-, *agr- slaughter *agro-k battlehound *agro-magos- battle . (Shanghainese, Turkish Suzhounese), Those dictionaries published by Brill in the Leiden series have been removed from the University databases for copyright reasons. This page was last edited on 3 July 2022, at 11:41. Slovak ScottishGaelic MauritianCreole In historical linguistics, Italo-Celtic is a hypothetical grouping of the Italic and Celtic branches of the Indo-European language family on the basis of features shared by these two branches and no others. Pashto As such, the term (s) in this entry are not directly attested, but are hypothesized to have existed based on comparative evidence. Breton We argue that most IE fox-words go back to two distinct PIE stems: *hlp-e- fox and, By clicking accept or continuing to use the site, you agree to the terms outlined in our. Next to consonants, PC * underwent different changes: the clusters *s and *t became *xs and *xt respectively already in PC. It would then analogically spread to other Celtic strong verb roots ending in sonorants in addition to the weak verbs, even if the root did not originally end in a laryngeal. He then used the fraction of agreeing cognates between any two related languages to compute their divergence time by some (still debated) algorithms. Hausa Muskogean The most common alternative interpretation is that the proximity of Proto-Celtic and Proto-Italic over a long period could have encouraged the parallel development of what were already quite separate languages, as areal features within a Sprachbund. Temiar It is also known as Common Brittonic, and was spoken from about the 6th century BC to the 6th century AD in most of Great Britain south of the Firth of Forth. Ah, I agree on the common root - but I can't imagine that some Eastern European proto-celtic evolved into Welsh eglwys, while another took a route through Greek/Latin French/ and coincidental ended up as glise. It contains a reconstructed lexicon, The discussion focuses on the problem of pre-Celtic substratum languages in the British Islands. Proto-Celtic is often associated with the Urnfield culture and particularly with the Hallstatt culture. Swahili Latin Uralic on July 14, 2017, This is a cleaned version of the original file found on The Internet, There are no reviews yet. Similar developments appear in Italic, but for the syllabic nasals *m, *n, the result is Proto-Italic *m, *n (> Latin em ~ im, en ~ in). s.parentNode.insertBefore(gcse, s); 1500 entries. Aromanian The analysis was based on the DNA of 1,000 Irish individuals and 6,000 from Britain and mainland Europe - and confirms the vast extent of migration between the two islands. Whereas Continental Celtic offers plenty of evidence for phonology (the sound system), its records are too scanty to help Read More Berber Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/mrogis&oldid=67617047, Proto-Celtic terms inherited from Proto-Indo-European, Proto-Celtic terms derived from Proto-Indo-European, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. But a simple division into P- / Q-Celtic may be untenable, as it does not do justice to the evidence of the ancient Continental Celtic languages. Proto-West Germanic, Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Appendix:Proto-Celtic_Swadesh_list&oldid=62506573, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. (OldPersian, MiddlePersian) Sranan This category has the following 13 subcategories, out of 13 total. Hittite English-Celtic Dictionary Online and Free English-Celtic Translation. Matasovis conclusion that finally, the fact that there appear to be only a few, Abstract Despite more than a century of research, the origin of the Insular Celtic double system of verbal inflection is still debated. [16]:62[14]:220. Pama-Nyungan Punjabi Persian [9] More recently, Schrijver (2016) has argued that Celtic arose in the Italian Peninsula as the first branch of Italo-Celtic to split off, with areal affinities to Venetic and Sabellian, and identified Proto-Celtic archaeologically with the Canegrate culture of the Late Bronze Age of Italy (c. 13001100 BC).[10]. Place names, demonyms and other kinds of names can be found in Category:Names. Dictionary entries. Wutunhua Tibeto-Burman (Nepal)) Belenus. Ancillary study: Sound Change, the Italo-Celtic Linguistic Unity, and the Italian Homeland of Celtic", "Laryngeal Realism and early Insular Celtic orthography", "Old Irish cuire, its congeners, and the ending of the 2nd sg. Cape Verdean Navajo Scholars who believe that Proto-Italo-Celtic was an identifiable historical language estimate that it was spoken in the 3rd or 2nd millennium BCE somewhere in South-Central Europe. Each lemma contains the reflexes of the Proto-Celtic words in the individual Celtic languages, the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) roots from which they developed, as well as the cognate forms from other Indo-European languages. Spanish Uto-Aztecan, Esperanto *m is assimilated or lost before a glide: *p assimilates to *k when another *k follows later in the word (pk > kk). Estonian The principal lemmata are alphabetically arranged words reconstructed for Proto-Celtic. Egyptian, Hypothetical grouping of the Italic and Celtic language families, Michael Weiss, Italo-Celtica: Linguistic and Cultural Points of Contact between Italic and Celtic in, "Revisiting the classification of Gallo-Italic: a dialectometric approach", "NUEVA INSCRIPCIN LUSITANA PROCEDENTE DE PORTALEGRE", "Indo-European and Computational Cladistics", Italo-Celtic Origins and Prehistoric Development of the Irish Language, "17. Subsequently, it was reduced to 207, and reduced much further to 100 meanings in 1955. Please support me on. The Celtic languages are the languages descended from Proto-Celtic, or "Common Celtic", a branch of the greater Indo-European language family. Celtic *mori 'body of water, sea' (neuter) (Gaulish Mori- ~ Old Irish muir ~ Welsh mr), E.g. var s = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; Possibly, post-consonantal laryngeals are lost when before pre-tonic close vowels: Possibly, vocalization of laryngeals to * between a *CR cluster and consonantal *j (CRHjV > CRjV), Syllabic laryngeals become *a (CHC > CaC), Syllabic resonants before a voiced unaspirated stop become *Ra (RD > RaD). It is a descendant of the Proto-Indo-European (h)se-desirative, with i-reduplication in many verbs. ash *onno-ash *oulwan- (?) However, Schumacher[4] and Schrijver[5] suggest a date for Proto-Celtic as early as the 13th century BC, the time of the Canegrate culture, in northwest Italy, and the Urnfield culture in Central Europe, implying that the divergence may have already started in the Bronze Age.[why?]. Armenian Fiji Hindi rather unambiguous despite appeals to archaic retentions or morphological leveling. TokPisin Proto-Germanic One change shows non-exact parallels in Italic: vocalization of syllabic resonants next to laryngeals depending on the environment. Proto-Celtic is usually dated to the Late Bronze Age, ca. Telugu Welsh Imperative endings in Proto-Celtic were as follows:[14]:147148, The second-person singular imperative was generally endingless in the active; no ending was generally added to athematic verbs. The following sound changes are shared with the Italic languages in particular, and are cited in support of the Italo-Celtic hypothesis.[7]. Dravidian AntilleanCreole Fongbe The genders were masculine, feminine and neuter; the numbers were singular, plural and dual. Proto-Italic Ancient. Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive Etymological Dictionary Of Proto Celtic Publication date 2017-07-14 Topics linguistics, historical linguistics, indo-european languages, celtic languages Collection opensource Language English Alternatively, a reference for Proto-Celtic vocabulary is provided by the University of Wales at the following sites: On this Wikipedia the language links are at the top of the page across from the article title. Celtic languages share common features with Italic languages that are not found in other branches of Indo-European, suggesting the possibility of an earlier Italo-Celtic linguistic unity. In historical linguistics, Italo-Celtic is a hypothetical grouping of the Italic and Celtic branches of the Indo-European language family on the basis of features shared by these two branches and no others. The following monophthongs are reconstructed: The following diphthongs have also been reconstructed: The morphological (structure) of nouns and adjectives demonstrates no arresting alterations from the parent language. (Sinitic, Chechen It is also possible that some of these are not innovations, but shared conservative features, i.e. Slovene Algonquian and Iroquoian Fundamental All languages Proto-Celtic. au 3 (aue); u English meaning: from, away, of Deutsche bersetzung: "herab, weg von " Material: O.Ind. [21], There were also three verbs that did not use -(a)se-, instead straight-out taking thematised primary endings. Celtic Dictionary. Though Continental Celtic presents much substantiation for Proto-Celtic phonology, and some for its morphology, recorded material is too scanty to allow a secure reconstruction of syntax, though some complete sentences are recorded in the Continental Gaulish and Celtiberian. Likewise, final *-d devoiced to *-t-: *druwid- "druid" > *druwits.[13]. At the moment we have published the following online documents: Epenthetic *i is inserted after syllabic liquids when followed by a plosive: Epenthetic *a is inserted before the remaining syllabic resonants: All remaining nonsyllabic laryngeals are lost. This is the first etymological dictionary of Proto-Celtic to be published after a hundred years, synthesizing the work of several generations of Celtic scholars. NigerCongo Khmer Whereas Continental Celtic offers plenty of evidence for phonology (the sound system), its records are too scanty to help. va " from, down ", mostly prefix from verbs . Sino-Tibetan: Berber: Ivi, Dubravka. Siouan and Pawnee Cornish Dictionary. Proto-Mayan Catalan About us. Makasar 1.0 1.1 Matasovi, Ranko (2009), "*wasto-", in Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic (Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series; 9), Leiden: Brill, ISBN, page 404 ^ Pokorny, Julius (1959) Indogermanisches etymologisches Wrterbuch [Indo-European Etymological Dictionary] (in German), volume 3, Bern . Kangean Interlingua Italian The considerable genetic legacies of the Vikings, Normans and Ulster plantations has uncovered a previously hidden genetic landscape, shaped by invasions and migrations. How to use proto- in a sentence. Maltese Voiceless stop phonemes /t k/ were aspirated word-initially except when preceded by /s/, hence aspirate allophones [t k]. Mori Zealandic) Many types of trees found in the Celtic nations are considered to be sacred, whether as symbols, or due to medicinal properties, or because they are seen as the abode of particular nature spirits.Historically and in folklore, the respect given to trees varies in different parts of the Celtic world. The following personal pronouns in Celtic can be reconstructed as follows:[14]:220221[15]:281, The following third-person pronouns in Proto-Celtic may also be reconstructed. *dug, Indogermanisches etymologisches Wrterbuch, "The Origin of the Welsh Englyn and Kindred Metres", Celto-Germanic Later Prehistory and Post-Proto-Indo-European vocabulary in the North and West, "17. Another future formation, attested only in Gaulish, is the -sye-desiderative. Vietnamese See More Copyright Year: 2009 Hardback Availability: Published ISBN: 978-90-04-17336-1 Publication date: Bengali Proto-Indo-Iranian Proto-Turkic A Celtic Encyclopedia. Wiktionary Advertisement Find Similar Words Find similar words to proto-celtic using the buttons below. PIE *p is lost in PC, apparently going through the stages * (possibly a stage *[p])[10] and *h (perhaps seen in the name Hercynia if this is of Celtic origin) before being completely lost word-initially and between vowels. Tibeto-Burman, Paginator2 Etymological dictionary of proto-Celtic Author: Ranko Matasovi Summary: "This is the first etymological dictionary of Proto-Celtic to be published after a hundred years, synthesizing the work of several generations of Celtic scholars. Swedish It was a descendant of the subjunctive of an Indo-European sigmatic thematic formation *-seti. Sundanese Thus, PIE *gen- 'woman' became Old Irish and Old Welsh ben, but PIE *gn- 'to kill, wound' became Old Irish gonaid and Welsh gwanu. The Gaulish conversion of *wo to ua is regular. The following consonants have been reconstructed for Proto-Celtic (PC): PC stops allophonically manifest similarly to those in English. Using vocabulary lists, he sought to understand not only change over time but also the relationships of extant languages. It contains a reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Celtic with ca. The primary endings in Proto-Celtic were as follows. Our assessments, publications and research spread knowledge, spark enquiry and aid understanding around the world. Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic (Leiden; The Teacher's Grammar of English: A Course Book; Rethinking the Administrative Presidency: Trust, Otto Treumann: Graphic Design in the Netherlands; SOON Timepiece Phenomena: adventures in concept; Cartoon Modern: Style and Design in Fifties; Filmstile book; Neuropsychology: From Theory to Practice / Nynorsk) Irish For a list of words relating to Proto-Celtic language, see the, However, according to Hackstein (2002) *CH.CC > in unstressed medial syllables. It refers to the idea that people inevitably share traits with or resemble . Guinea-BissauCreole Hindi Brittonic. Bangala Tagalog This number is, 0. Penutian Updates? That hypothesis fell out of favour after it was re-examined by Calvert Watkins in 1966. Bantu [6] The changes are roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list. Assamese Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary, Category:Requests concerning Proto-Celtic, Given names from Proto-Celtic by language, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Category:Proto-Celtic_language&oldid=70848475, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. A reformulated list was published posthumously in 1971. For example, in Classical Latin the word for "tongue" or "language" is lingua, which comes from Old Latin * dingua from PI * denw. Dalmatian Primary subjunctive formations in Proto-Celtic generally use the e-grade of the verb root, even if the present stem uses the zero-grade. Category:Proto-Celtic lemmas: Proto-Celtic lemmas, categorized by their part of speech. (Bokml, 1500 entries. Proto-Celtic is generally thought to have been spoken between 1300 and 800 BC, after which it began to split into different languages. "Italo-Celtic Correspondences in Verb Formation". SiberianTatar [24][14]:140, Scholarly reconstructions [6][25][26][27] may be summarised in tabular format. Standard, TocharianB 1500 entries. Proto-Celtic Manx Q-Celtic languages may also have /p/ in loan words, though in early borrowings from Welsh into Primitive Irish, /k/ was used by sound substitution due to a lack of a /p/ phoneme at the time: Gaelic pg "kiss" was a later borrowing (from the second word of the Latin phrase osculum pacis "kiss of peace") at a stage where p was borrowed directly as p, without substituting c. The PC vowel system is highly comparable to that reconstructed for PIE by Antoine Meillet. Chumashan and Hokan Schrijver supposes that its athematic present was used clause-initially and the thematic conjugation was used when that was not the case.[28]. gcse.src = 'https://cse.google.com/cse.js?cx=' + cx; The Leiden University has compiled etymological dictionaries of various IE languages, a project supervised by Alexander Lubotsky and which includes a Proto-Celtic dictionary by Ranko Matasovi. American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. That is hardly even a cousin, it is practically a sister! Goidelic. Occitan Proto-Hellenic DenYeniseian Tungusic So the main sources for reconstruction come from Insular Celtic languages with the oldest literature found in Old Irish[1] and Middle Welsh,[2] dating back to authors flourishing in the 6th century AD. Generally,*s-stems contain an *-es-, which becomes *-os in the nominative singular: *teges- 'house' > *tegos. HaitianCreole Okinawan While investigating Continental Celtic word-formation, I have come across some isoglosses which allow a less complicated reconstruction and, last not least, a better comprehension of the, Abstract The changes occurring in the Celtic word-field designating offspring are scrutinized and arranged into a somewhat revised relative chronology. Wu Cognate with Latin margo (border, edge), Proto-Germanic *mark (border, region), Avestan (marza, frontier). Faroese [23], The thematic deponent second-person singular imperative ending was *-eso. Gan, (OldMarathi) Tunisian) Two of these verbs are *bwiyeti "to be, exist" (subjunctive *bweti) and *klinutor "to hear" (subjunctive *klowetor).[22]. Tatar Georgian It is not attested in writing but has been partly reconstructed through the comparative method. Cantonese, (AncientGreek) Frisian Lingala Indonesian (Similarly, Grimm's law did not apply to *p, t, k after *s in Germanic, and the same exception occurred again in the High German consonant shift.). Finnish A collection of Celtic cognates, with definitions, pronunciation, etymologies - includes the modern Celtic languages, older versions of these languages, such as Middle Welsh, Old Irish, and their extinct and reconstructed relatives and ancestors, including Gaulish, Celtiberian, Proto-Brythonic and Proto-Celtic. Lingwa de Planeta (Lidepla) Derived from Proto-Indo-European *upo-sth--s (standing beneath), from *up (under) + *steh- (to stand) + *-s (agent suffix). Proto-Celtic, or Common Celtic, is the ancestral proto-language of all known Celtic languages, and a descendant of Proto-Indo-European.It is not attested in writing but has been partly reconstructed through the comparative method.Proto-Celtic is generally thought to have been spoken between 1300 and 800 BC, after which it began to split into different languages. A friend asked me to look into the origins of the saying An acorn doesn't fall far from the tree. (Neapolitan, Romanian Corrections? This category contains only the following page. (MiddleKorean) Celtic words for fence, hurdle, lattice and related things come from the same root: more details, as do words for left and related things. The -the in Old Irish is secondary. Etymology. *lm 'hand' (feminine) (Old Irish lm; Welsh llaw, Cornish leuv, Old Breton lom), E.g. So many of the sound changes that occurred from Proto-Italic to Old Latin to Classical Latin are so interesting. Search the history of over 797 billion var gcse = document.createElement('script'); The collective memory of the Proto-Israelites suffering in Canaan under Egyptian oppression and those suffering in Egypt merged in the genesis of Israel's story of origin from the transformation of oral tradition into written text. Polish (OldPortuguese) *slis 'sight, view, eye' (feminine) (Brittonic sulis ~ Old Irish sil), E.g. Kuki-Chin Baltic This question misunderstands the nature of protolanguages. This Proto-Celtic entry contains reconstructed terms and roots. These endings are:[19]:6267, The Old Irish t-preterite was traditionally assumed to be a divergent evolution from the s-preterite, but that derivation was challenged by Jay Jasanoff, who alleges that they were instead imperfects of Narten presents. (Old French) first in time; beginning : giving rise to; parent substance of a (specified) substance Formosan It flourished under the, Abstract The article deals with the origin of the Proto-Indo-European comparative suffix. Arabic Dictionary Meanings Proto-celtic Definition Proto-celtic Definition Meanings Definition Source Pronoun Filter pronoun The putative ancestor of all the known Celtic languages. Hiligaynon The assumed period of language contact could then be later and perhaps continue well into the first millennium BC. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). This is the main category of the Proto-Celtic language. The introduction contains an overview of the phonological developments from PIE to Proto-Celtic, and the volume includes an appendix treating the probable loanwords from unknown non-IE substrates in Proto-Celtic. Jizhao- English-Cornish Online Dictionary. Early New) Cypriot, These changes are shared by several other Indo-European branches. Words with an asterisk are . Javanese American linguist Morris Swadesh believed that languages changed at measurable rates and that these could be determined even for languages without written precursors. WestCoastBajau Avar Cebuano (OldPolish) Hakka, The article discusses a number of cases in which Proto-Indo-European word-initial sequences of the type *Hi- and *Hu- yield an acute vowel in Baltic and in Slavic. Want to add New Dictionary? Friulian Long vowels are shortened before a syllable-final resonant (V:RC > VRC); this also shortens long diphthongs. They were used to form the present, future, and subjunctive conjugations.[14]. Gujarati Be the first one to, Advanced embedding details, examples, and help, Terms of Service (last updated 12/31/2014). Japonic The principal lemmata are alphabetically arranged words reconstructed for Proto-Celtic. Either derivation requires Narten ablaut anyway, leading to a stem vowel i in the singular and e in the plural. (VulgarLatin)- (Old, Middle) Jeju KraDai Proto-Celtic, or Common Celtic, is the ancestral proto-language of all known Celtic languages, and a descendant of Proto-Indo-European. [3] The fact that it is possible to reconstruct a Proto-Celtic word for 'iron' (traditionally reconstructed as *sarnom) has long been taken as an indication that the divergence into individual Celtic languages did not start until the Iron Age (8th century BCE to 1st century BCE); otherwise, descendant languages would have developed their own, unrelated words for their metal. Romance [4], Definition from Wiktionary, the free dictionary, Indogermanisches etymologisches Wrterbuch, https://en.wiktionary.org/w/index.php?title=Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/uostos&oldid=71568684, Proto-Celtic terms derived from Proto-Indo-European, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. The voiced aspirate labiovelar *g did not merge with *g, though: plain *g became PC *b, while aspirated *g became *g. [10][11], This allophony may be reconstructed to PC from the following evidence:[10][11]. Hebrew They are usually considered to be innovations, likely to have developed after the breakup of the Proto-Indo-European language. Novial [citation needed] It can be inferred from Gaulish and Celtiberian as well as Insular Celtic that the Proto-Celtic verb had at least three moods: A probable optative mood also features in Gaulish (tixsintor) and an infinitive (with a characteristic ending -unei) in Celtiberian.[17][18]. "Ranko Matasovis Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic (henceforth EDPC), is a welcome and very useful tool for linguistic investigationwe are extremely grateful to Ranko Matasovi for his remarkable achievement." Entries where "Proto-Celtic" occurs: march: Translations smallage - see smallage Anagrams charm march (Welsh) Origin & history From Proto . Cornish Verbs were formed by adding suffixes to a verbal stem. Nanjingnese), It had both athematic and thematic conjugations in the present tense. The principal lemmata are alphabetically arranged words reconstructed for Proto-Celtic. Hawaiian Zulu, Afroasiatic As someone who has studied Classical Latin for years, Proto-Italic is fascinating to me. original Indo-European language features which have disappeared in all other language groups. Burmese on the Internet. This dictionary is based on structured data extracted on 2023-03-03 from the enwiktionary dump dated 2023-03-01 using wiktextract.. (Cal)- Generally, nasal stems end in *-on-; this becomes *- in the nominative singular: *abon- "river" > *ab. This is the first etymological dictionary of Proto-Celtic to be published after a hundred years, synthesizing the work of several generations of Celtic scholars. Gaul. Volapk, Proto-Austronesian (Tashelhit, Sequences of velar and *w merge into the labiovelars (it is uncertain if this preceded or followed the next change; that is, whether gw > b or gw > g, but Schumacher 2004 argues on p.372 that this change came first; moreover, it is also found in Proto-Italic, and thus arguably belongs to the previous section): Aspirated stops lose their aspiration and merge with the voiced stops (except that this. Early and Modern Irish, Scots Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, Cornish, Breton, Old British, Pictish, Gaulish, Celtiberian and Galatian). As Watkins (1966) puts it, "the community of - in Italic and Celtic is attributable to early contact, rather than to an original unity".
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